References
i It is common to refer to the social determinants of health or mental health. MHA uses the word “drivers” rather than “determinants” because social risk factors are not immutable. We can address disparities and risk factors and can promote protective factors to improve community and individual well-being and mental health outcomes.
iii Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, queer/questioning, intersex, asexual
ivThe official poverty rate is 11.5%, meaning there are 37.9 million people living in poverty. U.S. Census Bureau; Desmond, Poverty by America (2023); Poverty Facts and Myths: America’s Poor are Worse off than Elsewhere.
vNational Alliance to End Homelessness, Income (Updated Dec. 2023); Colburn & Aldern, Homelessness is a Housing Problem (2022)
viiHow immigrants are getting healthy coverage
viii“The Behavioral Healthcare Affordability Problem” Center for American Progress (May 26, 2022)
ixBell, et al., “Misdiagnosis of African Americans with Psychiatric Issues” 107 J. Nat. Med. Assoc. pp. 25-34 (2015); Lawson, “Disparities in Mental Health Diagnosis and Treatment Among African Americans: Implications for the Correctional Systems”
xiExamples include: (1) In 2023, a record of 336 anti-LGBTQIA bills have been introduced targeting youth increasing stigma, minority stress, discrimination, bullying, violence, and chronic stress. Ramirez, M. (2023, March 2). A “crisis”: 1 in 4 Black transgender, nonbinary youths attempted suicide in previous year, study finds. USA TODAY. (2) LGBTQIA+ youth are more significantly more likely to experience depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, and neurodevelopmental disorders; Migdon, B. (2022, July 22). Transgender children are more likely to face mental health challenges, study says [Text]. The Hill. (3) One in four Black transgender or nonbinary youths attempted suicide last year at a rate more than twice of black cisgender peers, Ramirez, M. (2023, March 2). A “crisis”: 1 in 4 Black transgender, nonbinary youths attempted suicide in previous year, study finds. USA TODAY. 45% of LGBTQIA+ youth reported seriously considering suicide. Herron, A. (2023, April 11). Anti-Transgender Bills Take Toll on Mental Health. Fountain House.
xiiSee MHA’s Position Statement “Supportive Housing and Housing First.”
xiii“Understanding nutrition, depression and mental illnesses” Rao, et al., Indian J Psychiatry. 2008 Apr-Jun; 50(2): 77–82. Lachance and Ramsey, “Food, Mood, and Brain Health: Implications for the Modern Clinician” Mo Med. 2015 Mar-Apr; 112(2): 111–115.
xiv“How to Boost Mental Health Through Better Nutrition” American Society for Nutrition (2023)
xvMartin Luther King (1996).
xviAs discussed above in the Section on “Poverty” low Medicaid rates commonly lead to restricted access to health care. See Note v.
xviiCoombs, et al., “Barriers to healthcare access among U.S. adults with mental health challenges: A population-based study” SSM Popul Health. 2021 Sep; 15: 100847. Published online 2021 Jun 15; Roeber, et al., “Adults in poor physical health reporting behavioral Health Conditions Have Higher Health Costs” Center for Behavioral Health Statistics (2016).
xxiDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Org., 142 S. Ct. 2228 (2022).
xxiiTurnaway Study, Bixby Center for Global Reproductive Health & University of California San Francisco.
xxv“K-12 Disparity: Facts and Statistics” UNCF (2023); Garcia & Weiss “Education inequalities at the school starting gate.” Economic Policy Institute (2017).
xxviKondirolli 7 Sunder, “Mental health effects of education” Health Economics 2022 Oct; 31(Suppl 2): 22–39; Niemeyer, et al., “Education and mental health: Do psychosocial resources matter?” Population Health Volume 7, (April 2019); Chevalier & Feinstein, “Sheepskin or Prozac: the causal effect of education on mental health” Econstor (2006).
xxviiFor more information about the need for and lack of mental health services in schools see the following MHA Position Statements: “Early Identification of Mental Health Issues in Young People”; “Addressing the Youth Mental Health Crisis”; “Prevention of Mental Health and Substance Use Disorders in Young People”; “Discipline and Positive Behavioral Supports in Young People”.
xxviiiSee MHA’s Position Statement “Violence: Community Mental Health Response.”
xxixPew Research: What the data says about gun deaths in the U.S.; Wisevoter: Mass Shootings by Country.
xxxiMarusic, ”How contaminated water contributes to mental illness” Environmental Health News (2021).
xxxivJarosz, “Direct Exposure to Green and Blue Spaces is Associated with Greater Mental Wellbeing in Older Adults” Journal of Aging and Environment Volume 37, 2023 – Issue 4; Maas, et al., “Morbidity is related to a green living environment” J Epidemiology &Community Health (December, 2009).
xxxviAlbrecht, et al., “Solastalgia: The Distress Caused by Climate Change” ) Australas Psychiatry 2007:15 Suppl 1:S95-8; Galway, et al., “Mapping the Solastalgia Literature: A Scoping Review Study” Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(15), 2662.
xxxviiCoffey, et al., “Understanding Eco-anxiety: A Systematic Scoping Review of Current Literature and Identified Knowledge Gaps” J. Climate Change & Health (Aug. 2021); Kurth & Pihkala, “Eco-Anxiety: What it is and Why it Matters” Frontier in Psychology (Sept. 2022).
xlChapman, et al., “Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood” J. of Affective Disorders Volume 82, Issue 2, 15 October 2004, Pages 217-225; Boullier & Blair, Adverse Childhood Experiences” Pediatrics & Child Health Volume 28, Issue 3, March 2018, Pages 132-137.
xliMHA urges funders such Medicare, Medicaid and private insurance to reimburse providers of peer support services and community health workers to provide assistance with SDOMH in order to improve mental health and other health outcomes.
xliiSee MHA’s Position Statement “Cultural and Linguistic Competency in Mental Health Systems.”